tomography

Computed tomography (CT) is a type of imaging. It uses special x-ray equipment to make cross-sectional pictures of your body.

Doctors use CT scans to look for:

• Fractures (broken bones)
• Cancers
• Blood clots
• Signs of heart disease
• Internal bleeding

During a CT scan, you lie still on a table. The table slowly passes through the center of a large X-ray machine. The test is painless. During some tests you receive a contrast dye, which makes parts of your body show up better in the image.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Nuclear scans use radioactive substances to see structures and functions inside your body. They use a special camera that detects radioactivity.

Before the test, you receive a small amount of radioactive material. You may get it as an injection. Sometimes you swallow it or inhale it. Then you lie still on a table while the camera makes images. Most scans take 20 to 45 minutes.

Nuclear scans can help doctors diagnose many conditions, including cancers, injuries, and infections. They can also show how organs like your heart and lungs are working.

Your abdomen extends from below your chest to your groin. Some people call it the stomach, but your abdomen contains many other important organs. Pain in the abdomen can come from any one of them. The pain may start somewhere else, such as your chest. Severe pain doesn't always mean a serious problem. Nor does mild pain mean a problem is not serious.

Call your health care provider if mild pain lasts a week or more or if you have pain with other symptoms. Get medical help immediately if:

• You have abdominal pain that is sudden and sharp
• You also have pain in your chest, neck or shoulder
• You're vomiting blood or have blood in your stool
• Your abdomen is stiff, hard and tender to touch
• You can't move your bowels, especially if you're also vomiting

Your adrenal, or suprarenal, glands are located on the top of each kidney. These glands produce hormones that you can't live without, including sex hormones and cortisol, which helps you respond to stress and has many other functions.

A number of disorders can affect the adrenal glands, including tumors. Tumors can be either benign or malignant. Benign tumors aren't cancer. Malignant ones are. Most adrenal gland tumors are benign. They usually do not cause symptoms and may not require treatment. Malignant adrenal gland cancers are uncommon.

Types of tumors include:

• Adrenocortical carcinoma - cancer in the outer part of the gland
• Neuroblastoma, a type of childhood cancer
• Pheochromocytoma - a rare tumor that is usually benign

Symptoms depend on the type of cancer you have. Treatments may include surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy.

The appendix is a small, tube-like organ attached to the first part of the large intestine. It is located in the lower right part of the abdomen. It has no known function. A blockage inside of the appendix causes appendicitis. The blockage leads to increased pressure, problems with blood flow, and inflammation. If the blockage is not treated, the appendix can burst and spread infection into the abdomen. This causes a condition called peritonitis.

The main symptom is pain in the abdomen, often on the right side. It is usually sudden and gets worse over time. Other symptoms may include:

• Swelling in the abdomen
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and vomiting
• Constipation or diarrhea
• Inability to pass gas
• Low fever

Not everyone with appendicitis has all these symptoms.

Appendicitis is a medical emergency. Treatment almost always involves removing the appendix. Anyone can get appendicitis, but it is more common among people 10 to 30 years old.

NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Cancer is not just one disease but many diseases. Cancer begins in your cells, which are the building blocks of your body. Usually, your body forms new cells as needed, replacing old cells that die. Sometimes this process goes wrong. New cells grow even when you don't need them, and old cells don't die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass called a tumor.

Tumors can be benign or malignant. Benign tumors aren't cancer, while malignant ones are. Cells from malignant tumors can invade nearby tissues. They can also break away and spread to other parts of your body. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis. Symptoms and treatment depend on the type of cancer and how advanced it is.

There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Cancer can start almost anywhere in your body. Most cancers are named for where they start. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and breast cancer starts in the breast.

Cancer may also be described by the type of cell that formed it, such as sarcoma if cancer begins in your bone and soft tissue. Carcinoma is the most common type of cancer. It is formed by epithelial cells, the cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of your body.

Cancer is a genetic disease. That means changes in your genes cause it. Changes in your genes are also called gene variants or mutations. Genes are parts of DNA in your cells that you inherit from your parents. However, only some cancers are caused by genes passed down from your parents.

Genetic changes can occur to your genes over your lifetime that affect how your cells function. Usually, your body gets rid of damaged cells before they turn cancerous, but this ability goes down as you age. Other factors that may affect your risk of developing cancer can include:

• Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun
• Smoking
• Your diet
• Physical inactivity

Cancer symptoms depend on the type of cancer. For example, some of the symptoms that cancer may cause can include:

• A lump in your breast
• Blood in your urine (pee) or stool (poop)
• Bleeding or bruising for no known reason
• A sore that doesn't heal
• Trouble swallowing
• A new mole or a change to a mole you already have

Cancer may cause various symptoms but often doesn't cause pain. Don't wait until you're having pain before seeing your health care provider. See your provider if you have symptoms that don't get better in a few weeks.

There is no single test that can diagnose cancer. The tests ordered are usually based on your symptoms. Your provider may:

• Ask about your medical history
• Ask about your family health history, including relatives who have had cancer
• Do a physical exam
• Do a screening test such as a mammogram, colonoscopy, or a Pap test
• Order blood tests or imaging tests

To find out if you have cancer, your provider may order a biopsy. A biopsy is the procedure of removing and examining tissue, cells, or fluids from your body.

Treatment depends on the type of cancer and how advanced it is. Most treatment plans may include surgery, radiation, and/or chemotherapy. Some may involve hormone therapy, immunotherapy or other types of biological therapy, or stem cell transplantation.

It's usually not possible to know exactly why cancer develops in some people but not others. There are some things that you can't control which may increase or decrease your risk of getting cancer, such as inheriting certain genes or your age. But some lifestyle habits may increase your risk of certain types of cancer. Avoid or reduce lifestyle habits such as:

• Smoking and tobacco use
• Having too much sun exposure
• Drinking too much alcohol
• Not getting enough physical activity
• Having obesity

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Cirrhosis is scarring of the liver. Scar tissue forms because of injury or long-term disease. Scar tissue cannot do what healthy liver tissue does - make protein, help fight infections, clean the blood, help digest food and store energy. Cirrhosis can lead to :

• Easy bruising or bleeding, or nosebleeds
• Swelling of the abdomen or legs
• Extra sensitivity to medicines
• High blood pressure in the vein entering the liver
• Enlarged veins called varices in the esophagus and stomach. Varices can bleed suddenly.
• Kidney failure
• Jaundice
• Severe itching
• Gallstones

A small number of people with cirrhosis get liver cancer.

Your doctor will diagnose cirrhosis with blood tests, imaging tests, or a biopsy.

Cirrhosis has many causes. In the United States, the most common causes are chronic alcoholism and hepatitis. Nothing will make the scar tissue disappear, but treating the cause can keep it from getting worse. If too much scar tissue forms, you may need to consider a liver transplant.

NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Diverticula are small pouches, or sacs, that bulge outward through weak spots in your colon. They mostly form in the lower part of the colon. Diverticulosis is a condition in which you have these pouches. Most people who have diverticulosis do not have symptoms or problems. But sometimes the pouches can cause symptoms or become inflamed.

Diverticulitis is the name for the condition you have when one or more of the pouches get inflamed. Diverticulitis may come on suddenly. It can sometimes cause serious health problems.

Diverticular disease is a condition that happens when the pouches cause:

• Chronic (long-term) symptoms
• Diverticular bleeding
• Diverticulitis or diverticulitis complications

Researchers aren't sure what causes diverticulosis and diverticulitis. They think certain factors may play a role in causing or increasing the risk for these conditions, including:

• Your genetics. Certain genes may make some people more likely to develop the conditions.
• Lifestyle factors such as:
  • Diets low in fiber and high in red meat
  • Lack of physical activity
  • Taking certain medicines, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and steroids
  • Having obesity
  • Smoking

Researchers are also looking at other possible factors that may play a role in these conditions. Those factors include bacteria or stool (poop) getting caught in a pouch in your colon and changes in the microbiome in the intestines. Your microbiome is made up of the bacteria and other organisms in your intestines.

Diverticulosis is common, especially as people age. More than one-third of U.S. adults between the ages of 50 and 59 have diverticulosis. More than two-thirds who are over age 80 have it. Most of those people will not have symptoms or problems. But some of them will develop diverticulitis.

Diverticulosis usually doesn't cause symptoms. But some people can have chronic symptoms such as:

• Bloating
• Constipation or diarrhea
• Cramping or painin the lower abdomen (belly)

Diverticulitis may cause acute symptoms such as:

• Abdominal pain, most often in the lower left side of your abdomen
• Constipation or diarrhea
• Fevers and chills
• Nausea or vomiting

The pain caused by diverticulitis is usually severe and comes on suddenly. Less often, the pain may be mild and worsen over several days.

Some people with diverticulosis and diverticulitis may develop serious health problems (complications). Diverticular bleeding happens when a small blood vessel within the wall of a pouch bursts. The bleeding may be severe and sometimes even life-threatening.

People with diverticulitis can also develop serious problems such as:

• Abscess, a painful, swollen, pus-filled area caused by infection
• Fistula, an abnormal opening or passage between the colon and another part of the body, such as the bladder or vagina
• Intestinal obstruction, a partial or total blockage that keeps food, fluids, air, or stool from moving through your intestines
• Perforation, or a hole, in your colon
• Peritonitis, an infection of the lining of the abdominal cavity

Diverticulosis may be found when your health care provider is doing tests for another reason. Diverticulitis is usually found when you are having an acute attack.

To make a diagnosis, your provider will review your medical history, do a physical exam, and order tests. The tests may include:

• Blood tests
• Stool tests
• Imaging tests such as CT scan, ultrasound, or MRI
• Colonoscopy

f your diverticulosis is causing chronic symptoms, your provider may recommend:

• High-fiber foods or fiber supplements
• Antibiotics
• Medicines to reduce inflammation
• Probiotics

If you have diverticulitis without complications, your provider may recommend treatment at home. However, you probably need treatment in the hospital if you have severe diverticulitis, diverticulitis with complications, or a high risk for complications.

Treatments for diverticulitis may include:

• Antibiotics, except for very mild cases.
• A clear liquid diet for a short time to rest the colon. Your provider may suggest slowly adding solid foods to your diet as your symptoms improve.
• Medicines for pain. This is usually acetaminophen instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs may increase the chance of diverticulitis complications.
• Antispasmodic medicines to relieve spasms.

If your diverticulitis doesn't improve with treatment or if it causes complications, you may need surgery to remove part of your colon.

Your provider may recommend lifestyle changes to prevent diverticulitis:

• Eating a diet high in fiber and low in red meat
• Being physically active on a regular basis
• Not smoking (and quitting smoking if you are a smoker)
• Reaching and maintaining a healthy weight

NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Heart diseases are the number one killer in the United States. They are also a major cause of disability. If you do have heart disease, it is important to find it early, when it is easier to treat. Blood tests and heart health tests can help find heart diseases or identify problems that can lead to heart diseases. There are several different types of heart health tests. Your health care provider will decide which test or tests you need, based on your symptoms (if any), risk factors, and medical history.

Cardiac catheterization is a medical procedure used to diagnose and treat some heart conditions. For the procedure, your provider puts a catheter (a long, thin, flexible tube) into a blood vessel in your arm, groin, or neck, and threads it to your heart. The provider can use the catheter to:

• Do a coronary angiography. This involves putting a special type of dye in the catheter, so the dye can flow through your bloodstream to your heart. Then your provider takes x-rays of your heart. The dye allows your provider to see your coronary arteries on the x-ray, and to check for coronary artery disease (CAD). CAD is caused by plaque buildup in the arteries.
• Take samples of your blood and heart muscle.
• Examine your heart valves.
• Do procedures such as angioplasty or minor heart surgeries to repair congenital heart defects or replace heart valves.

A cardiac CT (computed tomography) scan is a painless imaging test that uses x-rays to take detailed pictures of your heart and its blood vessels. Computers can combine these pictures to create a three-dimensional (3D) model of your whole heart. This test can help providers detect or evaluate various heart problems, including:

• Coronary artery disease
• Calcium buildup in the coronary arteries
• Congenital heart defects
• Problems with the aorta (the main artery that carries blood away from the heart)
• Problems with heart function and valves
• Pericardial diseases

Before you have the test, you get an injection of contrast dye. The dye highlights your heart and blood vessels in the pictures. The CT scanner is a large, tunnel-like machine. You lie still on a table that slides you into the scanner, and the scanner takes the pictures.

Cardiac MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) is a painless imaging test that uses radio waves, magnets, and a computer to create detailed pictures of your heart. It can help your provider figure out whether you have heart disease, and if so, how severe it is. A cardiac MRI can also help your provider decide the best way to treat heart problems such as:

• Congenital heart defects
• Coronary artery disease
• Heart valve problems
• Pericarditis
• Cardiac tumors
• Damage from a heart attack

The MRI is a large, tunnel-like machine. You lie still on a table that slides you into the MRI machine. The machine makes loud noises as it takes pictures of your heart. Sometimes before the test, you might get an injection of contrast dye. The dye highlights your heart and blood vessels in the pictures.

A chest x-ray creates pictures of the organs and structures inside your chest, such as your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. It can reveal signs of heart failure, as well as lung disorders and other causes of symptoms not related to heart disease.

Coronary angiography (angiogram) is a procedure that uses contrast dye and x-ray pictures to look at the insides of your arteries. It can show whether plaque is blocking your arteries and how severe the blockage is. Providers use this procedure to diagnose heart diseases after chest pain, sudden cardiac arrest (SCA), or abnormal results from other heart tests such as an EKG or a stress test.

You usually have a cardiac catheterization to inject the dye into your coronary arteries. Then the provider will take special x-rays while the dye is flowing through your coronary arteries. The dye lets your provider study the flow of blood through your heart and blood vessels.

Echocardiography, or echo, is a painless test that uses sound waves to create moving pictures of your heart. The pictures show the size and shape of your heart. They also show how well your heart's chambers and valves are working. Providers use an echo to diagnose many different heart problems, and to check how severe they are.

There are several different types of echocardiography. For transthoracic echocardiography (the most common type), a technician applies gel to your chest. The gel helps sound waves reach your heart. The technician moves a transducer (wand-like device) across your chest. The transducer connects to a computer. It transmits ultrasound waves into your chest, and the waves bounce (echo) back. The computer converts the echoes into pictures of your heart.

An electrocardiogram, also called an ECG or EKG, is a painless test that detects and records your heart's electrical activity. It shows how fast your heart is beating and whether its rhythm is steady or irregular.

An EKG may be part of a routine exam to screen for heart disease. Or you may get it to detect and study heart problems such as heart attacks, arrhythmia, and heart failure.

For the test, you lie still on a table and a nurse or technician attaches electrodes (patches that have sensors) to the skin on your chest, arms, and legs. Wires connect the electrodes to a machine that records your heart's electrical activity.

Stress testing looks at how your heart works during physical stress. It can help to diagnose coronary artery disease, and to check how severe it is. It can also check for other problems, including heart valve disease and heart failure.

For the test, you exercise (or are given medicine if you are unable to exercise) to make your heart work hard and beat fast. While this is happening, you get an EKG and blood pressure monitoring. Before or after the test, you might also have an echocardiogram, or other imaging tests such as a nuclear scan. For the nuclear scan, you get an injection of a tracer (a radioactive substance), which travels to your heart. Special cameras detect the energy from the tracer to craeate pictures of your heart. You have pictures taken after you exercise, and then after you rest.

NIH: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

Hodgkin lymphoma, also called Hodgkin disease, is a type of cancer that develops in the lymph system. Your lymph system is part of your immune system. It helps protect your body from infection and disease.

The lymph system is made up of tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells. It includes your:

• Bone marrow
• Lymph nodes
• Lymphatic vessels
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Tonsils

Hodgkin lymphoma is one of the main types of lymphoma. The other is non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Each type starts in different types of white blood cells.

The cause of Hodgkin lymphoma is unknown. But there are certain people who are at higher risk of developing it.

Certain factors can make you more likely to develop Hodgkin lymphoma:

• Age. Hodgkin lymphoma is most common in early adulthood (age 20-39 years) and in late adulthood (age 65 years and older).
• Being male. The risk of adult Hodgkin lymphoma is slightly higher in males than in females.
• Past Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. Having an infection with EBV as a young child or teenager increases your risk of Hodgkin lymphoma.
• A family history of Hodgkin lymphoma. Having a parent or sibling with Hodgkin lymphoma increases your risk of developing it.

The signs and symptoms of Hodgkin lymphoma may include:

• Painless, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, or groin
• Fever for no known reason
• Drenching night sweats (very heavy sweating during sleep)
• Weight loss for no known reason in the past 6 months
• Itchy skin, especially after bathing or drinking alcohol
• Fatigue

To find out if you have Hodgkin lymphoma, your provider:

• Will ask about your symptoms and medical history. This will include checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual.
• May order some lab tests, such as:
  • Complete blood count
  • Blood chemistry studies
  • Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test
  • Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test
  • Blood tests to rule out other medical conditions
  • May do imaging tests such as a CT and PET (positron emission tomography) scans
  • May do a lymph node biopsy

Treatments for Hodgkin lymphoma include:

• Chemotherapy
• Radiation therapy
• Targeted therapy, which uses drugs or other substances that attack specific cancer cells with less harm to normal cells
• Cancer immunotherapy

Hodgkin lymphoma can usually be cured if it is found and treated early.

NIH: National Cancer Institute